Fuchsia procumbens

Fuchsia procumbens
By Geoff Bryant

Fuchsia (named after Leonhard Fuchs, a 16th century German botanist) is a genus of over 100 species of shrubs and small trees. Although there are four New Zealand native species (colensoi, excorticata, perscandens and procumbens) and one from Tahiti, the vast bulk of the genus occurs in Central and South America.
Think of fuchsias and chances are the fancy garden hybrids come to mind first. Showy as they are, it is not difficult to see they are related to wild species such as Fuchsia magellanica, Fuchsia denticulata and Fuchsia triphylla.
Some species, however, are less easy to distinguish. Our common native tree fuchsia (Fuchsia excorticata) has fuchsia-like flowers, though it can be hard to see the connection with the garden plants when it is not in bloom. But the likes of Fuchsia arborescens from Central America, with its panicles of tiny flowers, scarcely matches the common idea of a fuchsia.
The most widely grown of New Zealand's native species is Fuchsia procumbens and it too is quite unlike the garden cultivars. It is a low spreading plant with small rounded leaves and can be very hard to pick as a fuchsia until it flowers. Indeed, my initial experience of the plant was with cultivated specimens and I have to admit that I didn't immediately recognise wild plants when I first saw them.
This species was discovered in Northland in 1834 by Richard Cunningham. (some authorities call him Robert; in any case he should not be confused with his better known brother Allan.) However, it wasn't introduced into Europe until 40 years later in 1874. It has at times also been known as Fuchsia prostrata and Fuchsia kirkii.
The species occurs naturally in the north of the North Island down to northern Coromandel, often in coastal areas, and is now endangered in the wild. Though wild specimens can spread to several metres wide, cultivated plants are usually quite compact.
The flowers, which appear from mid to late spring are sometimes hard to see among the dense, sprawling foliage. The blooms are not the usual fuchsia colours - green and yellow, not red and purple - and most unusually, they face upwards rather than being pendulous. The blue pollen-tipped anthers are also very distinctive.
Upward facing flowers are scarcely surprising in a plant that grows so close to the ground. Nevertheless it is a feature that hybridisers have long been trying, with limited success, to breed into garden hybrids.
The real feature, and the reason why Fuchsia procumbens is grown by enthusiasts world-wide, is the berries that follow the flower. All fuchsias bear berries, but none can match the fruit of Fuchsia procumbens. While the bright red berries of wild plants are scarcely larger than redcurrants, cultivated plants may have fruit the size of small plums. The fruit has a grape-or plum-like bloom and is particularly showy because it is carried on top the foliage, not hanging below it. Fuchsia procumbens is a plant that likes to show off its wares.
This little trailing plant makes a superb hanging basket specimen and is very easy to grow. Despite its northerly natural distribution, it tolerates frosts and even withstands some drought. But strangely enough it is one of those New Zealand natives that is better know abroad than at home. British and American growers wouldn't be without it, but how often do you see a good specimen in a local garden?

I am a garden book author and horticultural photographer based in Christchurch, New Zealand. I run a stock photo library called Country, Farm and Garden ([http://www.cfgphoto.com]). This article may be re-published provided this information is published with it and is clearly visible.

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Gallica Roses

Gallica Roses
By Geoff Bryant

Very soon stocks of new season's roses will be arriving in the garden centres, if they're not already there. Indeed, to be sure of getting the most sought after varieties it may have been necessary to put an order in some time ago. However, in their rush for the new, those who are slaves to fashion often overlook gems, leaving some of the best tried and true plants for those prepared to simply wait and see what is available.

Gallica roses are a case in point. While the popularity of Old Roses waxes and wanes as each new generation discovers them and then seeks something new, the best of them carry on regardless.

Rosa gallica, also known as the French Rose or Provins Rose, is a species that grows wild from southern and central Europe to the Caucasus. Because it readily produces sports, has a tendency towards double flowers, and may have hybridised naturally with other species, it is likely that the earliest European garden roses were forms of Rosa gallica.

The earliest recognisable Gallica still grown is 'Officinalis', the Apothecary's Rose. It is a deep pink semi-double thought to have been introduced into France from the Middle East by returning 13th century crusaders. It has even been suggested that 'Officinalis' was the first cultivated rose, though that is impossible to prove. A similar rose was used medicinally and in perfume manufacture in Charlemagne's time, but it can't be traced back beyond around 1200 with any certainty. Nevertheless, 'Officinalis' can be seen in many medieval manuscripts, paintings, and stained glass windows, and while deep pink rather than red, it earned fame in the War of the Roses as the Red Rose of Lancaster. (The White Rose of York was Rosa × alba.)

'Rosa Mundi' (syn. 'Versicolor'), which probably dates from the late 16th century, is a very popular sport of 'Officinalis'. It has striped and sectored bicolor white and deep pink flowers, and is thought to have been named after Rosamund, a mistress of Henry II. It may date back to the 13th century or even earlier but can't be traced beyond 1580 with certainty.

Gallicas were at the height of their popularity from the 18th to the mid-19th centuries, and it is from that period that most of today's plants date. Early nurseries kept few records but it is likely that by the early 19th century there were well over 1000 varieties of gallica in cultivation, possibly up to 3000. It is therefore not surprising that several other recognised groups, such as the Damask Roses, have Rosa gallica in their parentage.

Their flowers, which are abundant and often heavily scented, tend toward the pink, red and purple shades. White gallicas are also available and many of the darker flowered types are flecked or otherwise marked with white or pale pink. The flowers appear only in spring and early summer, with perhaps the occasional late bloom, though vivid hips often follow the flowers, providing colour well into autumn.
The fleeting beauty of the flowers and the historical connections is certainly why Gallicas tend to be regarded as the most 'romantic' of all the roses. It's not hard to see why. Their beautiful, rather formal shapes with an air of elegance, their textures and colours, so often reminiscent of faded purple velvet, and their fragrance combine to create roses of which memories are made.

The very name Apothecary's Rose conjures up images of alchemy, love potions and the like. Associations with the French aristocracy also enhance the gallica's romantic appeal. Marie-Antoinette had made in 1770 a bed of 'Officinalis' petals and the Empress Josephine so adored Gallicas that her rose gardens at Malmaison were a virtual shrine to the type.

Many nurseries, especially rose specialists, stock a good range of gallicas and as you might expect, those that have survived long enough to still be in production in the 21st century tend to be sturdy, easily grown plants.

In addition to 'Rosa Mundi' and 'Officinalis' look out for 'Charles de Mills' (double, velvety crimson) 'Cardinal de Richelieu' (double, clustered dark purple red flowers), 'Hippolyte' (double, purple, many small flowers), 'Belle de Crécy', 'Tuscany Superb' (double, dark purple-red, very fragrant), 'Duchesse de Buccleugh' (double, deep pink, late), 'Duchesse de Montebello' (double, soft pink), 'Complicata' (single, bright mid-pink, fragrant), 'Nannette' (double, purple-red), 'Anaïs Ségales' (double, purple-pink, very fragrant), 'Ipsilanté' (double, mauve-pink) and 'Gloire de France' (double, purple-pink fading to pale pink edges).

Sure, you could wait until next year and check out the local botanic gardens before making a selection, but take my word for it, gallicas are beautiful. Why not start your own private Malmaison now?

Cultivation tips

Gallicas are very frost hardy and tend to be fairly small bushes with light or bright green that is usually quite lush. They can be bought budded or may be grown on their own roots. Own root plants will produce suckers that help to thicken up the bush and will sometimes even allow them to be grown as a hedge. Removing rooted suckers is an easy way to start new plants, which is probably why Gallicas were such a suitable subject for medieval plant propagators. Summer softwood cuttings under mist are reliable and winter hardwood cuttings outdoors strike quite well.

Their compact habit is easily maintained by light overall trimming and thinning, which can be done in winter or, if keeping the hips is not important, as soon as flowering is finished. You can even trim and shape in summer and winter if necessary. Very old bushes on their own roots may be cut back almost to ground level to encourage vigorous new growth. Gallicas are bristly rather than really thorny, which makes pruning a fairly pain-free experience.

Naturally, you need to keep an eye open for all the traditional pests and diseases of roses, though you needn't expect more trouble with Gallicas than any other roses. Just don't believe those comments you may read that suggest that they are particularly pest- or disease-resistant.

Did you know?

The Greeks and Romans cultivated Rosa gallica, though apart for the odd sport it is unlikely that they grew anything greatly different from the wild form. So should you feel the need to have rose petals strewn in your path in the manner of a Roman emperor, they should be those of Rosa gallica.

I am a garden book author and horticultural photographer based in Christchurch, New Zealand. I run a stock photo library called Country, Farm and Garden ([http://www.cfgphoto.com]). This article may be re-published provided this information is published with it and is clearly visible.

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Growing Palms

Growing Palms
By Geoff Bryant

Palms
Everybody recognises palm trees, they are the universal symbol for the tropics but many are hardy enough for our temperate climate gardens. Until recently New Zealand gardeners have had only a very limited range of palms to choose from. In the last five years the range has grown enormously as nurseries have been encouraged by gardeners eager to experiment.
Nevertheless, palms are, on the whole, slightly tender plants. Those that will tolerate regular frosts of -6°C. or more are few in number. If your minimum temperature does not drop below -2°C or if you are in a frost free area the range of suitable plants increases considerably.
There are two main styles of palms; the fan and the feather. The names refer to the layout of the fronds. Fan palms have the leaflets of the frond arranged just like a hand operated fan. The most widely grown fan palm is Trachycarpus fortunei, the Chinese Fan Palm. Feather palms have the leaflets of their fronds arranged along a rigid midrib like a bird's feather. The most commonly grown feather palm is Phoenix canariensis, the Canary Island Date Palm.
Palms are extremely important plants to the world's economy. The true date palm or commerce, Phoenix dactylifera, is rarely seen in New Zealand but is the most common commercially grown palm. The coconut, Cocos nucifera, is not far behind. Possibly more significant than fruit crops is the use of palms for shelter. Virtually every tropical third world village relies on palms as a roofing material.
Siting
Although palms are associated with sun and sand most species appreciate light shade when young. Shelter from wind is important if the fronds are to look their best but as the plants eventually become quite large they will eventually have to tolerate exposure to sun and wind.
When siting a palm remember to take into account the spread of the crown. This is not so significant with a mature plant as the crown is usually well above most obstructions. The problem is adolescent plants, which tend to have much the same spread as adults without the height. They take up a considerable area until the trunk begins to develop.
Soil conditions
Palms generally do best in a rich, moist well-drained soil. They have fairly strong roots that anchor them firmly. The roots of many palms can withstand a considerable amount of abuse, which enables the trees to be safely transplanted at almost any size.
Climate adaptability
Many palms are frost tender but there are quite a few that tolerate reasonably tough frosts. The best known are Phoenix canariensis and Trachycarpus fortunei but you should also consider Jubaea chilensis, Chamaerops humilis, Butia capitata, Washingtonia robusta and Brahea armata.
Palms often grow well in coastal conditions but benefit from occasional wash downs to remove any salt spray deposits.
Container growing
Palms often make superb container plants, both indoors and outdoors. Many are undemanding and tolerant of neglect. In cold areas it's often best to keep young palms in containers until well established. That way they can be moved under cover for winter. Once they have a spread of over 1.5 m or so they should be hardy enough to plant out but if it's not inconvenient it's better to wait as long as possible.
Propagation
Palms are nearly always propagated by seed. They usually have only one growing point so vegetative propagation is not practical. Occasionally suckers form at the base of established plants and may be carefully removed for growing on but this is not a reliable method of propagation.
Palm seed varies greatly in its ease of germination. The most common problem is very hard seed coats. No amount of scarification or soaking will soften the toughest of them. Sometimes acid treatment is resorted to but patience is the usual method. Some, such as Butia capitata, may take upwards of a year in the soil before germination but eventually with the right combination of moisture, temperature and time they sprout.
Pests and diseases
Palms are not prone to any unusual pests or diseases. Frost damage is far more likely to the biggest problem.
Palm selection
Do not expect to find all of the species at your local garden centre; many of these palms are only available as seed. Unless otherwise stated all of these palms have panicles of small yellow flowers.
Archontophoenix
The King Palm (Archontophoenix alexandrae) is a prominent feature in many tropical and sub-tropical areas but it is too tender for all but the very far north. Archontophoenix cunninghamiana is a better bet but it still requires a near frost free climate with warm summers. It is a feather palm with long arching frond. It can reach 20 m high but rarely exceeds 7 m in New Zealand gardens. The flowers are followed by masses of small red berry-like fruit. Archontophoenix cunninghamiana may be grown indoors but it needs high light and humidity levels. The seeds germinate easily.
Arecastrum-see Syagrus
Arenga
Two species of this genera are suitable for growing outdoors in mild areas. Both are feather palms with broad leaves that have silvery undersides. Arenga pinnata requires near frost free conditions but Arenga engleri from Taiwan will tolerate infrequent light frosts. Both species have interesting flowering habits and fruit. Arenga pinnata is monocarpic; it dies after flowering although it takes at least ten years to reach maturity. Arenga engleri survives to flower again but the leaf stem beside the flower stalk dies. Both species have fruit with extremely caustic pulp. Both species are unlikely to exceed 3.5 m high under New Zealand conditions but Arenga pinnata may reach 18 m high in its native South East Asian region. Arenga pinnata seed germinates quickly and easily but Arenga engleri is erratic and may take several months to sprout. Not usually grown indoors.
Blue Palm-see Brahea
Brahea
These fan palms are becoming more common in New Zealand gardens. Both of the common species Mexican Blue Palm (Brahea armata) and Guadeloupe Palm (Brahea edulis), are reasonably hardy and adaptable plants. B. armata has beautiful, finely divided glaucous fronds. It is the hardier of the two and will withstand -8°C once established. It has a stocky trunk for many years but may eventually reach 12 m high. Brahea edulis is tender when young but withstands -6°C once the trunk is over 10-15 cm diameter. It grows slowly to about 15 m high. Both species are tolerant of drought and low humidity. Brahea armata has 12 mm diameter brown fruit, while Brahea edulis has edible 18 mm diameter blackish fruit. Grow in full sun. The germination of Brahea armata seed is very erratic and may take up to year. Brahea edulis is less tricky but still not very reliable. High light requirements make Brahea unsuitable for indoor cultivation.
Butia
The Yatay, Pindo Palm or Jelly Palm (Butia capitata) from Brazil is a hardy feather palm with long drooping olive to bluish green fronds. It will withstand -10°C once established and deserves to be more extensively grown. It grows to about 7 m high. The flowers are followed by yellow to red 25 mm diameter pulpy fruit. Grow in full sun. Seed germination is highly variable, it is unlikely to take less than two months and may be a year or more. High light requirements mean this palm is not very suitable for growing indoors.
California palm-see Washingtonia
Canary Island date palm-see Phoenix
Caryota
The Fishtail Palm (Caryota mitis) is often grown as a house plant and is unlikely to grow well outdoors except in the very far north. Caryota urens has slightly lower heat requirements but will not tolerate any frost. It has very dark green, slightly arching fronds. All Caryota palms have intricately cut bipinnate feather fronds. Most species grow to large sizes (over 18 m high) in the tropics but are unlikely to exceed 8 m high under New Zealand conditions. They have fruit with caustic pulp that should not be handled with bare hands. The seed germinates easily. Caryota palms grow well indoors but prefer warmth and high humidity.
Chamaerops
The Mediterranean Fan Palm (Chamaerops humilis) is a bushy fan palm that is usually multi-trunked and will not exceed 6 m high. The trunks take many years to form and are seldom seen in gardens. Most plants grow to about 1.5 m high x 5 m wide. The fronds are tipped with sharp spines. It is a very hardy palm that tolerates -15°C. Tolerant of low humidity and drought. Grow in full sun. The seed germinate well and takes about six weeks to sprout. High light requirements and sharp spines make it unsuitable for indoor use.
Chilean wine palm-see Jubaea
Chinese fan palm-see Trachycarpus
Cocos
The Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera) is one the most important commercial crops. It is essentially a tropical palm but will grow outdoors in frost free areas of the far north. It is a large feather palm that often develops a leaning trunk. It may grow to 30 m high in the tropics but rarely exceeds 8 m in gardens. The fruit seldom will not develop to its normal size in our climate but becomes large enough to be a conversation piece. Coconuts germinate well but take at least three months to sprout. They need consistent warmth and the whole nut must be planted, do not strip away the husk. May be grown indoors but resents cold draughts.
Date palm-see Phoenix
Euterpe
Although primarily a tropical plant the Assai Palm (Euterpe edulis) will grow outdoors in frost free areas with warm summers. It is a feather palm with arching fronds and graceful drooping leaflets. The trunk is improbably slim fro the size of the foliage head and may grow to 25 m high although it is unlikely to exceed 10 m high under New Zealand conditions. The fruit is black and about 12 mm diameter. The seeds germinate easily. May be grown indoors when young.
Fishtail palm-see Caryota
Howea
Very popular indoors but capable of growing outdoors in frost free areas, these palms were formerly classified as Kentia and are still widely known by that name. Two species, Howea belmoreana and Howea forsterana, are grown. Both are natives of Lord Howe Island. They are feather palms with deep green gracefully arching fronds and narrow trunks. Howea belmoreana grows to about 7 m high and Howea forsterana about 15 m high but both are unlikely to reach these sizes in New Zealand gardens. They have brown olive sized fruit that takes two years to ripen. Only very fresh seed will germinate and even then it is erratic. Both species need shade when young, which is why they perform well indoors.
Jubaea
The Chilean Wine Palm (Jubaea chilensis) is a hardy (-8°C) feather palm that should be more widely grown. It has deep green arching fronds and a very distinctive trunk. The trunk becomes greatly enlarged, rather like a baobab tree, so that when mature it may be up 2 m diameter. Within the trunk is a large reserve of sap, which may be tapped and fermented into an alcoholic drink, hence the name Wine Palm. This palm can grow to 20 m high or more but it takes many years to get above 10 m high. The 40 mm diameter fruit is yellow and the seed it contains germinates easily but takes about four months to sprout. May be grown indoors but has high light requirements.
Kentia-see Howea
Lady palm-see Rhapis
Livistona
These fan palms are native to South East Asia and Australia. Two species, Livistona australis and Livistona chinensis, are suitable for growing outdoors in mild areas. They are very similar to one another. Both have deep green spiny fronds with leaflets that droop and fray at the tips. They have quite solidly built trunks that grow to about 12-15 m high. Under New Zealand conditions it takes many years for them to reach 10 m high. Both species are hardy to about -5°C when well-established. Livistona australis has 18 mm diameter reddish fruit and Livistona chinensis has 25 mm diameter green fruit. The seed of both species germinates easily and quickly. May be grown as house plants but they have high light requirements.
Nikau-see Rhopalostylis
Palmetto-see Sabal
Phoenix
The Canary Island Date Palm is by far the most common feather palm grown in New Zealand gardens. It has deep green arching fronds and a trunk studded with bases of old fronds. When young, the trunk tends to be quite bulbous but as it gains height it becomes more tree-like. A mature tree may be up to 18 m high and have a very solid trunk. The fruit is about 40 mm diameter and yellowish orange. Phoenix dactylifera is the true 'Date Palm' of commerce that is such a well-known symbol of North Africa and the Middle East. It has shorter fronds in a less dense head than Phoenix canariensis. It is much taller when mature, up to 25 m high. Both Phoenix canariensis and Phoenix dactylifera will withstand -8°C when established but should not be exposed to hard frosts until the have a short trunk. Phoenix dactylifera needs hot summers to grow well and is unlikely to produce edible dates in a cool summer climate.
A third species, the Pygmy Date Palm (Phoenix roebelinii) is considerably less hardy but it can be grown outdoors in frost free areas. It is frequently used as a container plant as it only grows to about 3 m high. There are several other species that would be suitable for growing in New Zealand gardens but they are rarely seen . Among those most likely to do well are Phoenix loureiri, Phoenix rupicola and Phoenix sylvestris. All Phoenix palm seeds germinates quickly and easily. All species make excellent house plants when young.
Queen palm-see Syagrus.
Rhapidophyllum
The Needle Palm (Rhapidophyllum hystrix) is native to the south eastern United States. It is a hardy fan palm that remains low growing and bushy. The olive green fronds have sharp spines on the petioles and the tips of the leaflets are also sharp. It grows into a multi-trunked clump about 1.5 m high x 4 m wide. Makes a vicious, nearly impenetrable hedge. It is hardy to about -12°C but requires constant warm summer temperatures to grow well. Has 18 mm long green oval fruit, the seeds from which germinate erratically. Grow in full sun. Its spines make it unsuitable as a house plant.
Rhapis
The Lady palms are multi-trunked fan palms that are hardy to about -3°C when established but require warm summers to grow well. Two very similar species are grown, Lady Palm (Rhapis excelsa) and Slender Lady Palm (Rhapis humilis). They have small fronds on fibre covered bamboo-like canes. They form dense bushy clumps to about 4 m high with foliage to ground level. Rhapis excelsa has 12 mm diameter green fruit and grows quickly and easily from seed. Rhapis humilis does not produce seed and may not be a true species. It is grown from basal suckers. Both species are excellent house plants that tolerate low light levels and neglect.
Rhopalostylis
This genus is most commonly represented in gardens by our only native palm, the Nikau (Rhopalostylis sapida), but also includes Rhopalostylis baueri, which is a similar species from Norfolk Island. Sometimes known as Shaving Brush palms because of the prominent bulge beneath the foliage head both species are elegant feather palms that grow to about 8 m high under garden conditions although Rhopalostylis baueri can reach 15 m high or more in the wild. Both species tolerate only light frosts. Rhopalostylis sapida grows well in cool climates provided they are nearly frost free but Rhopalostylis baueri needs steady summer warmth. Both species have 18 mm diameter red fruit. Seed germinates reliably but may take over three months to sprout. Seedlings are slow growing and need shade. Good house plants when young.
Sabal
The Palmetto palms are native to the southeastern United States and Mexico. They are fan palms and often have large fronds. Two species are readily available. Sabal minor and Sabal palmetto. They are among the smaller species: Sabal minor is a bushy, often multi-trunked and grows to about 3.5 m high while Sabal palmetto is more tree-like but rarely exceeds 7 m high. S. minor has glaucous fronds. Both species are hardy to about -6°C once established and both have 12 mm diameter black fruit. The seed germinates quickly and easily. There are several other species worthy of trying but they are seldom available. Of these Sabal domingensis is the most distinctive as it can grow to 25 m high. Sabal mexicana and Sabal uresana are also tree sized. S. uresana has silver grey fronds and is very drought tolerant. These palms have high light requirements and are unlikely to be good house plants except for conservatories.
Seranoa
The Saw Palmetto (Seranoa repens) is bushy fan palm native to Florida. It grows into a clump about 2.5 m high x 4 m wide, often multi-trunked. The fronds are silvery grey to glaucous with sharp tipped leaflets. Hardy to about -4°C. Grow in full sun. The fruit is oval, about 18 mm long and black. The seed germinates well but may take a few months to sprout. Can also be grown from suckers. High light requirements would probably limit this species as a house plant.
Syagrus
The Queen Palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana [syn. Arecastrum romanzoffiana]), is frequently seen as a street tree in tropical and sub-tropical cities. This Brazilian native has very long finely divided arching plumose fronds that move in the slightest breeze. It has a slender trunk that can reach 18 m high but is unlikely to exceed 10 m under New Zealand conditions. Hardy to -5°C when mature but needs protection from frosts until about 1.5 m high with a good crown. Also needs warm summers to grow well. Has yellow fruit about 25 mm in diameter and 18 mm long seeds that germinate quickly and easily. It makes a good house plant when young but needs bright light and humidity.
Trachycarpus
The Chinese Fan Palm (Trachycarpus fortunei) is probably the hardiest of the tree-like palms. It will tolerate -12°C from a young age. The fronds are deep green and quite luxuriant on young plants grown in the shade but they rapidly deteriorate in full sun and strong wind. The trunk is covered in fibre and the bases of old fronds and may be up to 12 m high. The small 12 mm diameter grape-like fruit is bluish with a grey bloom. The seed germinates quickly and easily. As this palm prefers shade when young it makes a good house plant when young. There are other species worth growing, such as the very dwarf Trachycarpus nanus, but they are seldom available.
Washingtonia
These palms are synonymous with Southern California. They are fan palms with very straight trunks. Two species are grown, one Californian (Washingtonia filifera) and the other Mexican (Washingtonia robusta). Washingtonia filifera can grow to 20 m high and is quite stocky. Washingtonia robusta, which is sometimes called Sky Duster, has a very narrow trunk and may reach 30 m high or more. Under New Zealand conditions they are slow growing and unlikely to reach such impressive dimensions. The fronds have long petioles for fan palms. Both species will survive -6°C once established but need summer heat to grow well. Both have 18 mm diameter fruit that is reddish green when ripe. Both species appreciate light shade when young. The seed germinates quickly and easily. May be grown as house plants until too large to remain inside.

I am a garden book author and horticultural photographer based in Christchurch, New Zealand. I run a stock photo library called Country, Farm and Garden ([http://www.cfgphoto.com]). This article may be re-published provided this information is published with it and is clearly visible.

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Viburnum

Viburnum
By Geoff Bryant

Viburnums are related to the honeysuckles, so it should come as no surprise that many of them have fragrant flowers. But that's not all they have in their favour. No, this genus includes plants for all seasons and all reasons; foliage, flower, autumn colour, scent, groundcover, shrub or small tree, evergreen or deciduous, it's all there among the 120-odd species and the many hybrids and cultivars. Indeed, they're so variable that it would be quite possible to have an interesting garden of viburnums alone.
Although viburnums can be found over much of the temperate northern hemisphere and even South America, most of the common plants in our gardens, with the exceptions of the Laurustinus (Viburnum tinus) and the Guelder Rose (Viburnum opulus), occur naturally in temperate Asia or are derived from the species of that area.
About the only drawback with viburnums is that because they are so adaptable and easy to grow, they seem to have suffered from the 'familiarity breeds contempt' syndrome that sees common plants, however attractive and useful, relegated to the lower divisions of the garden league in favour of something more 'exciting'. Well, don't fall into that trap - every garden needs at least one viburnum.
Foliage
While the obvious division in the genus is between the evergreen and deciduous types, it's not quite that clear-cut. Some of the more popular plants are hybrids between evergreen and deciduous species and are semi-evergreen. This can actually be an advantage because they retain enough foliage to not look bare over winter while also developing vivid autumn tones in the leaves that fall. The very popular Viburnum × burkwoodii is the best example of this behaviour.
The foliage varies, but is in most cases a pointed elliptical shape and deeply veined. Some of the deciduous species, such as Viburnum opulus and Viburnum dentata, have lobed, somewhat maple-leaf-like foliage. Variegated foliage is not common, but where it does occur, the patterns and colours can be striking. The variegated form of Viburnum tinus is very popular.
Flowers
Viburnum flowers are nearly always white or pale pink, but within that limited colour range is found a huge variety of blooms. Although the individual flowers are small, they're massed in heads that in some types are very large indeed. Most often the flowers are all fertile, but some species have hydrangea-like flower heads in which small clusters of fertile flowers are surrounded by large sterile ray florets. Cultivars have been raised with flowerheads entirely composed of sterile flowers. A sterile Guelder Rose (Viburnum opulus 'Roseum' [syn. 'Sterile']) in full flower often droops under the weight of its huge flower heads.
Although spring is the main flowering season, many of the most fragrant viburnums start to bloom in winter, or even late autumn. Because their flowers aren't brightly coloured and insects are fewer in winter, they presumably use scent as a means to attract from a greater distance those pollinators that are around. Some, such as Viburnum × burkwoodii are rarely without a few flowers.
Fruit
In all cases, except for the sterile cultivars, the flowers are followed by berry-like drupes. While usually interestingly coloured, the drupes aren't always show, though when they are, they can be a real feature. The steel-blue fruits of Viburnum davidii are very distinctive and the black drupes of Viburnum grandiflorum are particularly large, but my favourite is the so-called High-bush Cranberry (Viburnum trilobum), which covers itself with bright red fruit in late summer and autumn. It seems that just about any plant with showy red berries gets called a cranberry, but although the fruit is edible and can be used as a substitute for cranberry, it isn't the real thing. For the record, the real cranberry, the one of jelly fame, is Vaccinium macrocarpon, a plant more closely related to rhododendrons than viburnums.
Cultivation
There isn't much to say here; viburnums are easy. Except for all but a few in the very coldest of New Zealand gardens, hardiness isn't a problem; they're not fussy about soil type; most will grow perfectly well in sun or part shade and some will grow in very dark corners. Good drainage helps but they will tolerate soil that's damp for a while.
Success with viburnums is not so much a matter of getting them to grow but directing and managing the growth they make. Although viburnums are plants with an in-built resistance to formal shaping, try to establish a good framework of main branches when the plants are young or they may develop into a mass tangled twigs rather than neat bushes.
As soon as possible after flowering, thin out any congested or weak stems and shorten back the main branches. There's nothing complicated here, it's just matter of letting more light and air into the centre of the bush and directing the plant's energy into productive wood rather than spindly growth. If this is done for the first five years or so, you should have well-shaped, heavy flowering plants.
What's available
There are many viburnums out there but garden centres tend to be rather uninspired in their selection, sticking pretty much to the tried and true. However, pester your local garden centre enough and they should be able to get hold of any of the following.
Viburnum bitchiuense
Found in southern Japan and Korea, this 3m tall deciduous shrub is beautiful in its own right while also being a parent of several attractive hybrids. It has large, strongly fragrant pink flowers that fade to white. They open in spring and are followed by black drupes.
Viburnum × bodnantense (Viburnum farreri × Viburnum grandiflorum)
A hybrid between two Chinese deciduous species, this 2.5m tall bush has rounded bright green leaves and small clusters of white flowers with a faint pink tint. The flowers are very fragrant and appear from late winter to early spring, very fragrant.
Viburnum × burkwoodii (Viburnum carlesii × Viburnum utile)
Viburnum carlesii is deciduous and Viburnum utile is evergreen, so in the spirit of compromise, their 3m tall offspring is semi-evergreen. Its rounded, bright green leaves have greyish undersides and in autumn those that fall develop intense yellow, orange and red tones before dropping. In mild areas the flowers open from late winter, elsewhere they appear in spring. They are white, opening from pink buds and are carried in ball-shaped clusters in spring. Their fragrance can scent the entirety of a small garden. Several cultivars are grown, of which the compact 'Anne Russell' is probably the most popular.
Viburnum × carlcephalum (Viburnum carlesii × Viburnum macrocephalum forma keteleeri)
Sometimes called the Korean Spice Viburnum, this deciduous hybrid grows to around 2.5m tall and its flowers really do have a spicy fragrance. They open in spring, the first blooms being pink while the later flowers tend towards white-flushed-pink. The flower heads are up to 15cm across and complement the large, rather glossy leaves.
Viburnum carlesii
At first sight this native of Korea and Japan resembles the more common Viburnum × burkwoodii, which is not surprising as it one of that hybrid's parents. However, it is fully deciduous and a more compact plant, rarely exceeding 1.8m tall. Its flowers, in ball-shaped clusters, pink in bud opening to white in spring, are very fragrant. There are quite a few cultivars of which 'Aurora' (flowers in various shades of red pink and white) and 'Cayuga' (orange autumn foliage) are the most popular. Others, such as the widely grown 'Chesapeake' are hybrids with Viburnum utile.
Viburnum davidii
While capable of growing to 1.5m tall, this western Chinese evergreen species is more commonly seen as a mounding groundcover. It has bright mid green, glossy, heavily veined leathery leaves up to 15cm long that overlap to form a dense foliage cover. Small clusters of white flowers open from late winter to mid-spring and are followed by steel blue drupes.
Viburnum dentatum
Known as Arrowwood because of its use for that purpose by native Americans, this large deciduous shrub or small tree has rather unexciting greenish white flowers and is often rather an untidy grower. However, this eastern North American species comes into its own in autumn as the black drupes ripen and the foliage develops vivid red tones.
Viburnum erubescens
This early summer-flowering, deciduous or semi-evergreen shrub is native to the Himalayas and found in mountainous areas as far south as Sri Lanka. The flowers are white flushed with pale pink and are followed by red fruits that blacken when ripe.
Viburnum farreri
Although less common than the hybrids raised from it, this 3m tall, northern Chinese, deciduous species is well worth growing for its very fragrant pink-tinted white flowers that open from mid-winter. If pollinated the flowers develop into red fruit that blackens when ripe.
Viburnum japonica
Like V. davidii, this evergreen shrub is most often seen used as a large-scale groundcover, though it's capable of growing well over 1m tall. A native of Japan, it has deep green, glossy leaves and bronze new growth. Loose clusters of white flowers in late spring are followed by red drupes. Regular trimming after flowering will keep it compact.
Viburnum lantana
The Wayfaring Tree, a species widespread in Eurasia, is a deciduous, sometimes tree-like shrub with heads of rather dull creamy-white flowers in spring. It is grown more for its fruit, which is red ageing to black, and its foliage. The leaves are attractive at all stages, starting out deep green and velvety, aging to dark green fine hairs coating their undersides, then developing gold and russet tones in autumn before falling.
Viburnum opulus
Found from Europe and North Africa to Central Asia, the Guelder Rose is a large deciduous shrub with mid green, deeply lobed, maple-like leaves that redden in autumn. Rounded heads of white flowers in spring are followed in late summer by red fruit. The bark contains a glucoside, viburnine, that has uses in herbal medicine, particularly in the control of spasms and cramps. 'Roseum' (syn. 'Sterile') is a cultivar with large heads of all-sterile flowers. It is known as the snowball tree because of the size and colour of its flowerheads and is far more widely grown than the species.
Viburnum plicatum
From China and Japan, this deciduous shrub grows to around 3m tall and has rounded, mid green, hazel-like leaves with serrated edges. Flattened clusters of white flowers in open in spring and may be followed by red fruit that blackens when ripe. The tiered branches are tiered make this species very distinctive and are a feature that is particularly apparent in the cultivar 'Mariesii'. 'Rosacea' is a cultivar with bronze young foliage and pink-tinted, all-sterile flowers in large heads.
Viburnum rhytidophyllum
While this late spring- and summer-flowering Chinese species has reasonably attractive heads of creamy-white blooms, it's really a foliage plant. The leaves are up to 20cm long and very heavily textured. The upper surfaces are slightly glossy and the undersurfaces are heavily coated in a grey to tan felt. 'Variegatum' is a cultivar with gold-splashed foliage. If the flowers interest you, look for 'Roseum', which has pinkish red blooms.
Viburnum tinus
Once one of the most popular hedging plants, though not so common now, the Laurustinus is a 3m tall, evergreen shrub from southern Europe and North Africa. It has leathery, bark olive green and in late winter and spring puts on a good display white flowers that often develop pink tints. Variegated foliage cultivars often have brighter pink flowers.
Viburnum trilobum
As described earlier, the High-bush Cranberry is a 2.5m tall, deciduous North American shrub. It has lobed, maple-like leaves that often turn bright red in autumn. Flat heads of white flowers open in spring and large clusters of very bright red berries in late summer to autumn. It is one of the best hardy shrubs for colour and quantity of fruit.
******
A little searching, especially through mail order catalogues, will yield quite a few more species, hybrids and cultivars. Or you could try propagating your own. The species may be raised from seed, which is usually best stratified, but hybrids and cultivars must be propagated vegetatively, most commonly by semi-ripe cuttings.

I am a garden book author and horticultural photographer based in Christchurch, New Zealand. I run a stock photo library called Country, Farm and Garden ([http://www.cfgphoto.com]). This article may be re-published provided this information is published with it and is clearly visible.

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Cyclamen

Cyclamen
By Geoff Bryant

Think of cyclamen and the chances are that Mothers Day immediately comes to mind, which is something of a pity. Now don't misinterpret me, there's nothing wrong with mothers or with having a day for them, but it does seem a little unfortunate when such beautiful, adaptable and useful plants become so commercialised that there's difficulty escaping that association.
But no plant as beautiful as the wild cyclamen can remain so neatly packaged and presented as its cultivated forms may have it. Gardeners are always willing to experiment, to use outdoors what might be considered house plants and to seek out less widely grown but hardier species for their gardens.
Once thought to consist of many species, the genus Cyclamen is now considered to include just 19 species, some of which encompass subspecies and forms previously considered distinct. Related to the primroses, they form a few large tubers or numerous small ones, soon spreading to cover a considerable area, if happy. They occur naturally in southern Europe, neighbouring western Asia and the moister parts of North Africa with one species from Somalia, and as with many of the western Asian bulbs, corms and tubers, some species are now rare in the wild because they have been over-collected by commercial bulb gatherers and enthusiasts.
Cyclamen are generally most at home in fairly dry, partly shaded, well-drained conditions such as might be found in a rockery. Although hardiness varies with the species, if planted in well-chosen sites, all can be grown in coastal New Zealand gardens and many can be cultivated inland too. While the exact flowering time varies with the species, none bloom to any great extent in summer, the cooler months from March to October being the main season.
Common species
The best-known cyclamen is Cyclamen persicum, which is so widely cultivated as an indoor or gift plant that it usually known as the florist's cyclamen. This species, or rather the countless cultivars or probably hybrids derived from it, is a native of the eastern Mediterranean, Libya and the islands of Rhodes and Crete. The true species, sometimes seen but often hard to differentiate from the cultivated forms, has dark green leaves heavily marbled with silver-grey and its fragrant flowers, which have reflexed petals up to 3 cm long, may be white, mauve or any shade of pink from pale to cerise. This natural variability and the ease with which it adapts to pot culture has made the plant what it is today - a universal favourite.
Cyclamen persicum is so well known that it's fashionable to dismiss it as being too common and to look instead for less widely grown species. However, anything that is popular becomes so for a reason and you don't have to search for the secrets to the success of the florist's cyclamen. It has lush foliage, masses of beautiful flowers in a huge range of colours and styles, it blooms from autumn to spring and can be grown indoors or outdoors in mild climates. What else could you possibly want?
Well, perhaps you might want greater frost hardiness, more flowers with less foliage, greater sun tolerance and the kind of diminutive stature that makes the finest rockery and alpine plants so appealing. And that's where the three species that come next in the list of the most widely grown cyclamen really shine, features not lost on the gardeners to which we often look for guidance, the British.
Cyclamen have always been popular in Britain but Cyclamen persicum rarely succeeds outdoors in the British climate. Consequently other species have been sought out and developed as garden plants. The first of these was the local Cyclamen purpurascens, from central and eastern Europe, which in its common form was formerly known as Cyclamen europaeum. This small species has marbled, rounded to ivy-like leaves and deep pink flowers that open from late summer. While still popular in British and European gardens, Cyclamen purpurascens is not commonly met with here, though its style of growth paved the way into cultivation for three species that are: Cyclamen coum, Cyclamen hederifolium and Cyclamen repandum.
Cyclamen coum
Undoubtedly my favourite, this tough little plant is found from Bulgaria and the Caucasus to the northern parts of Syria and Iran and may extend southwards into Israel. It dark leaves are small, usually 25 to 50mm wide, and are heavily marbled, with reddish undersides. The flowers are tiny too and may be white, pale pink or tending towards magenta. They open from early winter and continue unabated into spring. The flowers are remarkably resistant to frost and although they can look very downhearted when frozen, they immediately perk-up on thawing out. This is a terrific plant for rockeries or alpine troughs and is at home in sun or partial shade.
Cyclamen hederifolium
Formerly known as Cyclamen neapolitanum and still widely sold under that name, the attractively marbled, ivy-like foliage of this native of southern Europe and Turkey dies away in spring and does not reappear until well after the plant has started to flower in late summer. The small flowers occur in a wide range of shades and when spent, their stems start to coil like springs and turn downwards to the ground as the seed capsules develop.
Cyclamen repandum
This species is found from southern France to Greece and has large, lobed leaves that are dark green with conspicuous silver-grey mottling and marbling. Considering its lush foliage, spring blooming habit and Mediterranean homeland, it is surprisingly frost hardy. Its flowers are pleasantly scented, have petals up to 20mm long and occur in white and all shades of pink to light red.
These three species are so common that if you see a garden cyclamen that is obviously not Cyclamen persicum then the chances are that it's Cyclamen coum, Cyclamen hederifolium, Cyclamen repandum or one of the subspecies or forms of those species. However, collectors and enthusiasts, being what they are, have imported other species that you may occasionally have the pleasure of seeing.
Rarities
With so few species in the genus I'm reluctant to say that any of them aren't cultivated. Indeed, it's very likely that they're all in gardens - somewhere - in one form or another. But while I've learnt to never say never when it comes to stating what's to be found in our gardens, I'm yet to see the Somalian species, Cyclamen somalense.
Another exclusively African species, Cyclamen africanum, from Algeria is also very rare. It has rather glossy, toothed edged leaves up to 10 cm wide and its 25mm flowers, which are deep pink and open in autumn, have the scent of violets. It is somewhat similar to Cyclamen hederifolium and along with the white- to deep pink-flowered Cyclamen ciliatum from Turkey is usually the first cyclamen to start blooming in late summer or early autumn.
Also from Africa, the Libyan Cyclamen rohlfsianum has silvery marbled bright green leaves with a covering of fine pinkish hairs when young. Its bright pink flowers open in autumn and are often scented. It dislikes winter wet and is best grown in pots with the addition of some limestone chips.
The eastern Mediterranean species: Cyclamen creticum, from Crete; Cyclamen cyprium, from Cyprus; Cyclamen graecum, from Greece, the Aegean islands and southern Turkey; and Cyclamen libanoticum, from Syria and Lebanon, are all to be seen locally, though none are common. However, because these species are becoming increasingly rare in the wild and live in areas that are threatened by that most pernicious of predators, the tourist, we should be doing our bit to ensure their survival by making them more widely available.
They are, in the main, dainty plants with small leaves and pink flowers. Cyclamen graecum has some of the most beautiful foliage in the genus. In addition to the usual silver-grey mottling, its leaves have pale to vivid green veins, maroon undersides and reddish teeth.
Cultivation
As mentioned earlier, cyclamen generally prefer partial shade, very well drained, somewhat dry soil and cool conditions. They thrive in lightly shaded rockeries, growing happily in the crevices between rocks and also adapt well to container cultivation, especially in alpine troughs. Most species have a preference for neutral to slightly alkaline conditions. Adding a few limestone chips to the soil aids the drainage and keeps the pH about right.
That said, tough species like Cyclamen hederifolium usually adapt well to being cultivated with acid soil plants such as ericas and dwarf rhododendrons, so don't be afraid to experiment.
While a few species, such as Cyclamen libanoticum, prefer their tubers to be below the surface, in most cases the top of the tuber should be at or above the soil surface. This helps keep the tubers dry in winter and ensures that the crown of flower and foliage stems does not rot off at ground level. The tubers of indoor potted cyclamen should be kept dry - water the soil surface, not the tuber - and even then only when it has dried.
Cyclamen are not heavy feeders. Regular feeding with mild liquid fertilisers will keep house-grown cyclamen flowering well, while a light application of general garden fertiliser during the summer dormant season is enough to ensure that outdoor plants continue to thrive.
Pests and diseases are rare on healthy plants and when present are usually a sign of poor growing conditions. While slugs and snails can attack outdoor cyclamen, they should otherwise be pest-free. If indoor cyclamen show signs of botrytis, mildew of other soft rots, the soil conditions are probably too damp. If mealy bugs and scale insects occur they may indicate low humidity or may have spread from other plants that have been infested.
Propagation
Most cyclamen are bought in nurseries as ready-grown container plants intended, in the case of Cyclamen persicum, for growing indoors, or otherwise for planting out. As they grow and their tubers multiply, they can be lifted and dived when dormant.
This slow and steady method of propagation ensures a continuity of growth, but if you need to speed up your cyclamen reproduction consider propagating the plants from seed. While some of the fancy-foliaged forms must be propagated vegetatively to maintain their characteristics, most cyclamen cultivars reproduce reasonably true to type from seed and the species certainly do.
Growing from seed is quite straightforward, though you may have to wait quite some time before the first flowers appear, typically 18 months to two years. Sow the seed when ripe, usually late spring to early summer, in a fairly light, gritty soil. The temperature should be cool, around 18°C, and the seed should be lightly covered with soil. If viable, most of the seed should have germinated within 28 to 42 days. The seedlings may be pricked out into individual pots as soon as they are large enough to easily handle without damaging their fleshy stems.

I am a garden book author and horticultural photographer based in Christchurch, New Zealand. I run a stock photo library called Country, Farm and Garden ([http://www.cfgphoto.com]). This article may be re-published provided this information is published with it and is clearly visible.

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Delavay's Blueberry (Vaccinium delavayi)

Delavay's Blueberry (Vaccinium delavayi)
By Geoff Bryant

Whether we know it or not, most of us are familiar with the genus Vaccinium as it has among its members several current or potential commercial crops, such as blueberry, cranberry, bilberry and huckleberry. Vaccinium delavayi, however, is strictly ornamental and very unlikely to be our next export success.
The name vaccinium is an ancient one taken directly from the Latin vernacular: it was used to refer to Vaccinium myrtillus, the delightfully named whortleberry. Vaccinium delavayi takes its specific name, like so many Chinese plants, from the French Jesuit missionary Abbé Jean Marie Delavay (1838-95), who discovered the plant and introduced it to cultivation. He was also responsible for such well-known plants as Abies delavayi, Magnolia delavayi and Osmanthus delavayi reaching our gardens.
Vaccinium delavayi, a native of Burma and south-west China, is a hardy evergreen shrub with small, rounded leaves that are tough and leathery. In spring it produces clusters of small, bell-shaped to almost globular, white flowers that open from pink buds. The flowers are very much in the style of Pieris, Gaultheria, Andromeda and several other closely related genera in the erica family.
Pretty as the flowers are, the real appeal of this little blueberry lies in the deep bluish-black berries that follow. They are just like small blueberries and have a similar flavour but are rather acidic unless very ripe. Although it seems a shame to pick the berries, you might as well because the birds will have no such reservations.
While scarcely a spectacular plant, Vaccinium delavayi is attractive throughout the year and is always interesting, whether in flower, fruit or just as a neat foliage plant. It is an ideal specimen for a rockery or partially shaded corner. It grows to about 45cm high × 60cm wide and can be kept trimmed to a small mound. However, any pruning will adversely affect either the flowering or fruiting.
As any blueberry grower will tell you, Vaccinium plants prefer acidic soil conditions. The small ornamental species are most at home when grown with other erica family plants such as dwarf rhododendrons, evergreen azaleas, ericas, callunas and pieris.
The native New Zealand Gaultheria species are interesting plants to combine with Vaccinium delavayi. Gaultheria crassa, in particular, looks very like its Chinese relative and provides a good illustration of how plants that evolve under similar conditions often resemble each other despite occurring thousands of kilometres apart.
Other small native berrying plants, especially those of the epacris family, also make good companions. An alpine rockery with good berrying forms of Pentachondra pumila, Leucopogon fraseri, Cyathodes empetrifolia, Gaultheria crassa and Vaccinium delavayi would be full of interest and colour throughout the year.
You won't find Vaccinium delavayi in every garden centre, but it shouldn't require too much of a search to locate a specimen. Try looking in the perennials as well as among the shrubs, as it's often sold at a very small size and tends to get lumped in with the rockery perennials.

I am a garden book author and horticultural photographer based in Christchurch, New Zealand. I run a stock photo library called Country, Farm and Garden ([http://www.cfgphoto.com]). This article may be re-published provided this information is published with it and is clearly visible.

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Tuberous Begonias

Tuberous Begonias
By Geoff Bryant

If you appreciate plants that have no hesitation in boldly stating their presence with huge, almost artificially perfect flowers, then tuberous begonias are for you. While some may find them rather too overstated, downright brazen even, if you like colour, and plenty of it, with subtlety an option rather than compulsory, then look no further.

Flowering from late spring, as the days exceed 13 hours long, until well into autumn when the foliage dies back, these tuberous-rooted perennials have been extensively hybridised and refined to the point where the larger-flowered forms are nothing short of spectacular. For those with greenhouses or a very mild winter climate there are even types that flower well into winter, if not right through the cooler months.

Description and classification and groups

Begonias are among those convenient plants where the proper name is also the common name. The genus is found in the tropics and subtropics, particularly in the Americas, and is made up of around 900 species with 130-odd in cultivation, from which many cultivars and hybrids have been developed. These garden forms have been divided into 8 main categories. They are:

1. Cane-like, which have narrow, upright stems with conspicuous leaf nodes and evergreen foliage.

2. Shrub-like, which are bushy plants with branching stems.

3. Thick-stemmed, which resemble the cane-like but with much heavier stems that sometimes form a trunk.

4. Semperflorens, which are the fibrous rooted types usually treated as summer-flowering bedding annuals.

5. Rhizomatous, which may be evergreen or deciduous and which are often grown as much for their foliage as for their flowers.

6. Rex-cultorum, which are the fancy-leaved Rex begonias that are usually grown as house plants.

7. Tuberous, which have thickened tuberous roots and which usually die back over winter or, in the case of the winter-flowering types, which may be dried off at some other time.

8. Trailing Scandent, which are pendulous, ever-blooming plants often with long internodes and which should not be confused with the trailing tuberous begonias.

So group seven it is, yet although quite a few begonia species have tuberous roots, when we talk of tuberous begonias we're generally referring to the fancy-flowered group of garden-raised plants known as Begonia × tuberhybrida. Developed mainly from South American species, they first appeared in Europe in 1867, just three years after the introduction of the most influential of the early parent species, Begonia pearcei. Since that time thousands of hybrids have been raised and we now have tuberous begonias in a wide range of sizes and styles of flower and growth habit.

There are small- medium- and large-flowered hybrids; they may have single, semi-double or fully rose- or camellia-like double flowers; they may be small and mound-forming, trailing or upright to nearly a metre tall. And while the flowers are spectacular, don't ignore the foliage. Because although unlike say the Rex begonias, tuberous begonias are never grown for their foliage alone, their velvety, deep green leaves add a rich luxuriance that is the perfect foil to the flowers, which would definitely be diminished without the contrast of the leaves.

Cultivation

So, tuberous begonias are beautiful. I don't need to tell you that, the pictures speak for themselves, but how do you get the best out of them? Well, as garden plants they're not for everyone and not for every location, though with careful selection and siting you may be surprised at just how well they grow outdoors in many parts of New Zealand.

Begonias have a preference for cool, moist conditions and a climate that doesn't suffer from extremes of summer heat or winter cold. They need bright light to flower well but should be out of direct sunlight, especially during the heat of the day, and they also need shelter from strong winds or the flowers may brown at the edges and the soft foliage may be torn or bent. Tuberous begonias flower best with humus-rich soil, plenty of moisture and regular feeding.

Given those requirements it's not surprising that many gardeners choose to cultivate tuberous begonias indoors, as conservatory, shadehouse or cool greenhouse plants. However, if you have a bright southerly facing position in your garden or a shaded spot facing north, then begonias will thrive outdoors too, particularly in areas that don't often experience drought in summer.

Strong sun and wind, especially hot dry winds, are the main enemies; light soil that dries out quickly doesn't help either. But in a lightly shaded, sheltered position with soil that has been thoroughly prepared with plenty of well-rotted compost tuberous begonias will flower from early summer to the first frosts. And all that you need do is to stake the tall growers to bamboo canes (specialist nurseries stock wire frames), remove any spent flowers, keep the soil moist and add a little liquid fertiliser every week.

If you find that the super-fancy large-flowered forms are simply not tough enough for your garden, don't give up. Instead try some of the smaller-flowered hybrids. The little Multiflora types, commonly known as Flamboyant Begonias, are very resilient. Grown as massed bedding or in clusters, they're most commonly seen with bright red flowers, which often almost hide the foliage, but also occur in orange and a somewhat weaker yellow-flowered form.

Nonstop begonias are crosses between the Multifloras and the larger flowered types. As you'd expect they're of intermediate height and vigour. They flower continuously, even in winter if kept indoors, and are available in a wide range of colours. Nonstops are F1 hybrids so there is no point in saving the seed and any seedpods should be removed to keep the plants flowering. Reiger begonias, developed from Begonia × hiemalis, are similar.

And if open beds don't seem to work, consider growing your begonias in pots so that you can find just the right place for them. The upright types flower and grow well but are rather brittle, necessitating staking. The trailing types, often Begonia boliviensis hybrids, have more flexible, pendulous stems and when grown in hanging baskets they are easy-care plants that make a great show. Trailing begonias usually do best in sphagnum-lined wire baskets rather than solid pots, their roots appreciating the cool moist sphagnum.

Disbudding and deadheading

Begonias have separate male and female flowers. Usually one large female flower is subtended by two smaller male flowers. Removing the male flowers before they mature will allow the showy female flowers to reach their full size and will also prevent the development of seedpods that could lessen the plant's vigour. Old flowers should be removed once past their best. They snap off easily and doing this not only encourages new blooms to form, it also helps prevent fungal diseases that could develop among the decaying petals.
Pests and diseases

Begonias are neither particularly susceptible to nor resistant to pests. Slugs and snail relish the young shoots and the mature foliage, various caterpillars may chew the foliage, rasping and sap-sucking creatures such as thrips, aphids and mealy bugs may be present, but with a little attention and routine care, pests can usually be stopped before they get out of control.

More of a problem are fungal diseases, especially soft rots, mildew and botrytis. Damaged stems can quickly become soft, watery and rotten and this may lead to the eventual collapse of the plant. Almost inevitably the foliage will develop mildew in late autumn - it's just part of the winter die-back process - but mildew can also occur during the growing season. Good ventilation goes a long way towards controlling the severity of fungal diseases, keeping the foliage and stems reasonably dry also helps, though spraying with a fungicide will probably be necessary too.

Winter care

As flower production lessens from mid-autumn, cut back on watering and feeding and allow your begonias to dry off. While the foliage should dry, brown and fall away without too many problems, do keep an eye open for any fungal diseases that could spread to the tubers.

Once the foliage has dried, the tubers may be lifted or removed from their pots for winter storage. This isn't always necessary in mild winter areas, but where hard frosts or prolonged wet conditions are likely it's a good idea. The tubers can be stored in barely moist sawdust or any other fairly dry, inert medium, such as damp, shredded newspaper. Replant them (concave side up) in spring as the new shoots appear. Cover the tubers with a few centimetres of soil, as they sprout roots from the tops too.

The exceptions to the process are the winter-flowering Begonia × hiemalis hybrids, which result from crossing Begonia × tuberhybrida with Begonia socotrana, a species from an Indian Ocean island off the coast of Yemen. Widely sold as Reiger or "blush" begonias, these plants start to flower from late summer and will remain in leaf and flower until spring. Obviously these plants, which are completely intolerant of frost, need a very mild, benign winter to grow outdoors. However, they are very adaptable to indoor cultivation and are a great choice for winter-flowering house plants that can spend the summer outdoors in the garden.

Propagation

There are several ways to propagate tuberous begonias, the method used varying with they type of plant.
Seed

Sow bought seed to produce F1 hybrids such as the Nonstops or to get a new crop of vigorous young plants.

Begonia seed is very fine, dust-like in fact. It's so fine that it doesn't usually come in seed packets, where it would be lost in the folds, but in glass phials that have to be snapped open before sowing. Pelleted seeds are much easier to handle, thought they are not always readily available.

The seed needs warmth and light to germinate. It should be sown in spring, uncovered, in heated trays. Keep the seed just moist until it germinates. The young seedlings grow quickly and are soon large enough to pot. When small they are sensitive to draughts and temperature fluctuations and should be kept under cover until spring is well settled into early summer.

Prepare your garden beds with high-humus compost and organic fertiliser and because the foliage will be tender, plant out when the weather is not too hot and sunny.

Division

Mature plants have large tubers that divide readily and division is a good way to quickly produce established, sturdy plants. Divide the tubers in spring when replanting. They slice easily with a sharp knife but because finding the growing 'eyes' can be difficult keep your divisions on the large side. To prevent fungal diseases, dust the cut surfaces with sulphur powder and allow them to dry before planting.

Cuttings

Most tuberous begonias will grow from cuttings and this is an especially good method of building up large stocks of the small-flowered Multiflora types for massed bedding. The fresh spring and early summer shoots make the best cuttings and will strike very quickly under mild humid conditions. You can continue to take cuttings well into summer but unless the new plants can develop reasonably sized tubers before winter they will probably not survive until the following spring.

Like many of the house plant begonias, Begonia × hiemalis is often raised from leaf cuttings. This involves removing a mature leaf, slicing across its veins and pinning the leaf down on moist soil. A warm humid environment, such as an enclosed propagation tray, is essential. Also, you should start in spring so that the young plants are well-established before winter.

Begonia displays

Public gardens often use tuberous begonias in their displays and this can one of the best ways to see a wide range of flower types.

I am a garden book author and horticultural photographer based in Christchurch, New Zealand. I run a stock photo library called Country, Farm and Garden ([http://www.cfgphoto.com]). This article may be re-published provided this information is published with it and is clearly visible.

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Edgeworthia Chrysantha

Edgeworthia Chrysantha
By Geoff Bryant

Although it is a member of the Thymelaeaceae, the family that includes the daphnes, it would be hard to imagine a plant less like a daphne at first glance. However, if you are familiar with the deciduous Daphne genkwa, there is some hint of resemblance there.
The genus comprises three very similar species from China and Japan. It is named after Michael Pakenham Edgeworth (1812-81), a part-time botanist, plant collector and employee of the East India Company.
The plant grown in our gardens and sold in garden centres is commonly labelled E. papyrifera, which is actually a different species. There is some confusion over this, even among botanists. Apparently E. papyrifera has white flowers, not the yellow of E. chrysantha, though some botanists regard them variations of one species.
Edgeworthia chrysantha is a heavily-wooded deciduous shrub. It grows to around 1.2-1.8 m high by 1.5 m wide. Its 12.5-17.5 cm long, pointed oval leaves are soft green with prominent midribs and felted when young.
The foliage is attractive, especially when young, but this is a plant grown for its flowers. They are bright yellow aging to creamy white, tubular and about 1 cm long. Individually they are nothing much, but they are densely packed in 8 cm diameter globose heads. The are very fragrant and open until late winter from buds that have been obvious from late autumn.
The flowers are followed by dry, purplish-green berries known technically as drupes.
This is an often underrated shrub and I'd be the first to admit that it is not always instantly appealing. At first, its rather sparse growth and very heavy branches can seem grotesque. But with time these things tend to be overlooked in favour of the delicate colouring and fragrance of the flowers, and the beauty of the new foliage.
A moist, well-drained, humus-enriched soil with partial shade is best - the sort of conditions you would give your rhododendrons and camellias, or for that matter your daphnes. It is hardy to around -15°C and thrives in a cool temperate climate. Propagate by semi-ripe cuttings, aerial layers or seed.
Try Edgeworthia, it's not difficult to grow and although bare for much of the year it has its moment of glory when flowering, and definitely has that 'weird' appeal that makes it one for the collector.

I am a garden book author and horticultural photographer based in Christchurch, New Zealand. I run a stock photo library called Country, Farm and Garden ([http://www.cfgphoto.com]). This article may be re-published provided this information is published with it and is clearly visible.

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The Language of Flowers

The Language of Flowers
By Wilhelmina Jones

The "language of flowers" was originally brought to Europe in the early 1700's where many secret communications and love messages would be exchanged with flowers. A bouquet of flowers could hold an entire conversation. Each flower had its own meaning. The favorite flower of Venus, the Roman goddess of love, was thought to be the red rose and came to represent true love.

Today when you send flowers you are in fact communicating something whether it be a birthday wish, anniversary, cheer you up bouquet or expressing your deepest sympathy. If you are like most people you know that flowers have meanings but could not tell you what they are. Though meanings of flowers have been mainly agreed upon there can be some dispute as to its accuracy. To help you with your flower purchases here are some of the more traditional meanings of the flowers that are the most commonly purchased:

CARNATION (GENERAL) - Fascination, Woman Love

CARNATION (PINK) - Undying love

CARNATION (RED) - Admiration

CARNATION (PURPLE) - Capriciousness

CARNATION (WHITE) - Sweet and Lovely, Innocence, Pure Love,

CARNATION (YELLOW) - You Have Disappointed Me, Rejection

DAISY - Innocence, Loyal Love, Purity

IRIS - Fleur-de-lis, Emblem of France, Your Friendship Means so Much to Me, Faith, Hope, Wisdom and Valor, My Compliments

LARKSPUR (PINK) - Fickleness

LILY (WHITE) - Purity, Majesty, It's Heavenly to be with You

LILY (YELLOW) - I'm Walking on Air, Gay

LILY (CALLA) - Beauty

LILY (TIGER) - Wealth, Pride

LILY OF THE VALLEY - Sweetness, Return to Happiness, Humility, You've Made My Life Complete

ORCHID - Love, Beauty, Refinement, Beautiful Lady, Chinese Symbol for Many Children

ROSE (PINK) - Perfect Happiness, Please Believe Me

ROSE (RED) - Love, I Love You

ROSE (TEA) - I'll Remember Always

ROSE (WHITE) - Innocence and Purity, I am Worthy of You, You're Heavenly, Silence

ROSE (YELLOW) - Decrease of Love, Jealousy, Try to Care

ROSEBUD (RED) - Pure and Lovely

ROSEBUD (WHITE) - Girlhood

TULIP (RED) - Declaration of Love

TULIP (YELLOW) - There's Sunshine in Your Smile

Online flower delivery is fast becoming the way to order flowers. Not only is it easy for you but most florists will give you a visual of the arrangements plus their price. Now armed with some of the meanings, happy hunting!

Willie Jones is a floral designer at www.lilygardenfloral.com [http://www.lilygardenfloral.com]. Flowers Always Say It Best! online flower delivery [http://www.lilygardenfloral.com].

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Can Your Sundial Really Tell The Time?

Can Your Sundial Really Tell The Time?
By Hugh Harris-Evans

"I am a sundial, and I make a botch

Of what is done far better by a watch"

So wrote Hilaire Belloc, but is this really fair? Sundials are the earliest known form of time-keeping having been used for some five thousand years. The Greek historian Herodotus stated that sundials were first used by the Chaldeans and Sumerians in Babylonia which was part of the modern Iraq. They used vertical rods on their buildings and noted the position of the shadow to record the passing of the hours. The concept was developed by the Greeks and Romans who constructed various different shapes of dial to enable them to tell the time and the season of the year. Usually these were bowl-shaped dials with vertical or horizontal gnomons (shadow-casters) and hour lines marked in the hollow of the bowl. Over the years more elaborate designs were produced until the advent of accurate clocks when the function of the sundial became more decorative than as a reliable means of telling the time.

The question is often asked "Can a sundial really tell the correct time?" to which you will receive the Alice in Wonderland reply that it depends upon what you mean by "the correct time". Our clocks and watches work on the basis of there being exactly twenty-four hours between one day and the next but, because of the eliptical nature of the earth's orbit around the sun, the time shown on the sundial will vary according to the seasons. In February by the clock the sun is almost fifteen minutes slow, whereas during the spring and summer months it gains and loses between four and six minutes in two cycles. At the other extreme in November the sundial appears to be some seventeen minutes fast. In fact the sundial is accurate on only four days of the year, about April 15, June 14, September 2 and December 25. Some sundials include a table showing the deviation from "clock time" according to the date.

The time indicated by the sun will also vary with the location of the dial. The sun travels across the sky at the rate of fifteen degrees per hour so every degree of longditude represents a difference of four minutes from the standard meridian for the region. The angle of the gnomon also depends on the situation, so to set up your sundial correctly you need to know both the latitude and longditude of its location. The gnomon should be set at the angle in degrees which is equal to the latitude of your location. The sundial can then be fixed with the gnomon pointing to the Pole Star. There are various ways of achieving this, the easiest of which, is to use a compass adjusted for the magnetic variation. Further details are beyond the scope of this article, but for those interested just Google "sundials" to find sites with detailed instructions.

If you have read this far you will have discovered that there is a great deal more to the sundial than a mere item of garden decoration. If this has piqued your interest in the subject, then you are not alone. There are Sundial Societies in countries around the world. The North American Sundial Society has details of its objects and activities on its website.

A number of sundial trails have been established. A good example is the Thames Sundial Trail in London, England. This site lists a number of other trails in countries all over the world but only two in the United States. However the North American Sundial Society has a complete list on its website.

Two rather different designs are shown here. The first, which is commonly referred to as a Human Sundial, uses the person's shadow to indicate the time. By standing in the appropriate box for the date the shadow will show the correct time. The second is a Digital Sundial which sounds like a contradiction in terms but in reality is just a rather clever design.

Many sundials have a motto inscribed on the face. Often these are rather serious in tone and of the "Tempus fugit" variety but you also find some written in a lighter vein. Here are a few of my favourites:

The shadow of my finger cast

Divides the future from the past

The clock the time may wrongly tell,

I never if the sun shines well

I stand amid the summer flowers

To tell the passage of the hours

And finally again from Hilaire Belloc:

I am a sundial, turned the wrong way round.

I cost my foolish mistress fifty pounds!

Hugh Harris-Evans is the owner of The Garden Supplies Advisor where you will find further articles, gardening tips and product reviews.

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How To Care For Your Floral Arrangements

How To Care For Your Floral Arrangements
By Wilhelmina Jones

The more you can learn about fresh cut flowers and their special care, the healthier your arrangements will be.

Lets start with vases & containers. Most people will grab a vase out of the cupboard and fill it with water and place the flowers in it. I would like to suggest that you rinse it first with hot water and get any dust out of it. Then put a few drops (and I do mean only drops) of bleach. This will keep out and kill any bacteria and it will not harm the flowers. When you buy flowers, most places will supply a packet of flower food. If you have no flower food, not to worry, you can always put a teaspoon of sugar in the water.

Now you are ready to prepare your flowers.

Take each stem and remove any leaves that may be below the water line. You do this so you don't get microbial damage to your flowers. Leave as many leaves as possible above the water line as this is a design element. When you are dealing with roses, most people like to remove the thorns but I recommend that you leave as many thorns on as possible. This is because stripping them off causes wounds to the rose and allows possible microbial invasion causing your roses to die sooner than they need to.

You will want to cut about an inch off the bottom stems. Cut them at an angle with a sharp knife preferably under water. You do this so that the flowers drink water, not air. You can get air pockets in the stem preventing them from drinking which ensures early death.

There are some flowers that require special handling. Such is the case with freesia. This flower does not take well to chlorine so you'll want to use distilled water. Tulips do better in a vase with a penny on the bottom. The petals stay closed a little longer. Note, tulips can still grow after they have been cut, as much as an inch per day! Hydrangea prefers being in a vase. This is because it needs to be hydrated. If you put them in floral foam, their life span will be much shorter. Note, if your hydrangea shows signs of wilting, you can revive them by turning them upside down in water for about an hour.

Some flowers last longer than others, such as carnations and daisies. They can last as long as 3 weeks. An arrangement with roses and lilies will not last as long, usually 4 to 7 days. Determine what you want the flowers for.

These are some basic tips for you. I hope this helps!

Willie Jones is a floral designer at [http://www.lilygardenfloral.com] Flowers Always Say It Best! online flower delivery [http://www.lilygardenfloral.com].

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Science Can't Explain Everything!

Science Can't Explain Everything!
By Judy Williams

You will know that if you have spent at least some time reflecting on the world around you, some things cannot be explained in purely scientific terms. Armies of scientists and researchers swarm in labs around the world trying to take the mystery out of every bit of wonder we witness.

What is it that attracts us to a future partner? Scientists will say...tiny, odour sensors in our noses!

What causes shimmering lights in the night sky? Scientists say...sun spots affecting the earth's electromagnetic field.

It is true (I guess) that those things come about due to some sort of cause and effect from physical laws we have devised.

But it takes so much of the magic and mystery out of our lives.

Maybe it's a sunspot...but can I see a sunspot and predict the result? No I can't...All I can see is the mystery and beauty of the results. Can't I just spend some time enjoying the wonder of it?

If I managed to see my future partner across a crowded room and feel an instant 'twinge' does it make it any less magic? Is it worth reflecting on how, despite being born at opposite ends of the earth, we found ourselves in the same place and time at a random event that saw two worlds collide? I think it is. Because no event is a result of just one other event. It is always a combination of physical law and mysterious circumstance.

So is it so surprising that we can divine mysterious things in our gardens?

Take the case of companion planting, particularly in a vegetable garden. Companion planting is when the health and yields of particular plants can be improved by planting specific other plants near them. For instance, peas love being near beans, corn, carrots and cucumbers, but really hate being near onions. Potatoes enjoy the company of beans, peas and cabbage but are unhappy near tomatoes.

Any number of botanists will tell you that there are 'reasons' for this. Some attract the sort of bugs another needs, some have a scent that disturbs the progress of others. But wait a second...doesn't this sound just a little bit like personality?

Is it not possible that some plants just generally get along better with others because... what? They get what they need from them? They enjoy their company? Sound like another species you might be familiar with??

Companion planting is not considered 'scientific' because the results are not consistent and not always provable. Companion guidelines are based on observation and anecdote. Some combinations work better in the northern hemisphere than the southern hemisphere (True! Well, at least, anecdotally it's true). Some plants react contrary to expectations. But could that be due to something else??

The difference between male, female and neutral plants can be startling. You will know yourself that sometimes, two plants started at the same time or from the same magnificent parent plant will turn out completely differently. So now, not only do we have to contend with personality, we have to contend with the sex of a plant.

I know what you're thinking. Well, I think I know what you're thinking...how do you tell the sex of a plant? It's very unscientific, but so far, pretty reliable in its results. Hold a pendulum over the plant. This can be a needle on a thread, a seashell on fishing tackle, a necklace, whatever. The pendulum will move of it's own accord to indicate the sex of the plant.

Try it. The really healthy plants will be female (positive). They will make the pendulum move in a clockwise circle over the top of it. The male (negative) plant will make the pendulum move from side to side. If the pendulum doesn't move at all, the plant is neutral or the soil is lifeless. Forget it. Nothing is going to come out of that.

It's called dowsing and is the same method that has people finding water using a Y shaped pointed stick. Scientific? Nope. Does that mean it doesn't work? Not at all.

So here we are with two startling propositions. That your vegetable plants have both a sex and a personality that will determine at least in part, how they turn out despite your input. Geez, that's starting to sound a lot like my kids! (who will turn out very different from me, despite the magnificent parenting stock!!)

What does it mean for you as a gardener? The same thing it means for you as a parent.

Nurture your plants. Give them everything you think they will need to succeed.

Read advice books as required, but understand that observation will be your best guide.

Do not despair. Do not give up. It's about the journey, not the destination.

Understand that not all things can be understood. Sometimes, it's just the wonder of nature.
Enjoy yourself.

Judy Williams (http://www.no-dig-vegetablegarden.com) splits her time between being a big time media executive and alternative lifestyle earth mother. This accurately reflects her split 'Gemini' nature. She refuses to give up on the notion she can have it all.

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Growing Vegetables in Containers - The Compact Solution

Growing Vegetables in Containers - The Compact Solution
By Judy Williams

Container vegetable gardens are a great alternative for those that don't have access to backyards. There can be a range of reasons to grow your vegetables in containers...easy access to the kitchen, safer environments for children and the handicapped or just lack of a yard to use for gardening.

Vegetable gardens in containers can also be extremely attractive and serve the dual purpose of style and function around your patio.

The no dig vegetable garden can be just as successful in containers provided similar guidelines are followed.

Drainage is vital so ensure your containers have appropriate drainage holes to allow water to escape. If they don't, the plants will literally 'drown' and will be susceptible to diseases. They also need a sunny space. The advantage with vegetables grown in containers is that you can move the containers around to follow the sun if no one spot in your patio or garden is suitable.

Vegetables grown in containers will need some additional attention. Their root system is restricted to the pot so make sure you keep them well watered. Containers are far more likely to dry out in hot conditions which will kill your plants or have them 'fruit' poorly.

It is also very important that a mulch is put on top of the container. This will slow evaporation and keep the surface temperature of the soil cooler. Plants like tomatoes have small, fiberous roots which will dry and die in hot soil.

Container vegetables may need some additional fertilising due to the extra watering. Nutrients will be washed away quicker in a container than in the ground. A diluted water soluble fertiliser is the best option to use regularly with vegetables.

There have been many varieties of vegetables that have been bred to grow in containers. They are generally referred to a 'dwarf' varieties for obvious reasons. A list of suggested varieties and container sizes may help with your selection. Check with your seed supplier on the varieties they recommend.

Having said that, there are many vegetable varieties that will do very well in containers. Tomatoes, lettuce, beets, carrots, cabbage, peas, beans, capsicums and peppers are all good choices. Cucumbers, cauliflower and broccoli will also do well as will virtually all herbs.

Crops like potatoes, corn, pumpkins and vine fruits generally need more room than a container can provide. But the size of your containers and the varieties available to you will dictate what you grow. As with most gardening, trial and error is your best education.

Judy Williams (http://www.no-dig-vegetablegarden.com) splits her time between being a media executive and an earth mother goddess. No Dig Vegetable Gardens represents a clean, green way to grow your own food. The site covers all aspects of growing, cooking and preserving your harvest.

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Starting Seedlings Indoors

Starting Seedlings Indoors
By Judy Williams

Unless you have access to a greenhouse, or something like it, those living in cooler climates will have to start seedlings indoors if they are to take full advantage of their growing season.

Here are some gardening tips to starting seedlings indoors.

You can use an enclosed porch, a garage, a shed or a basement. Make sure you have sufficient counterspace to work comfortably.

Growing seeds is pretty straightforward. Give them what they need (light, water, warmth) and they will sprout. Simple as that. But don't start them too soon! In 4-6 weeks they will be ready to go out into the garden. If you are still experiencing frosts, they will be killed.

Prepare your containers, whether they are trays, egg cartons, yoghurt containers or jiffy pots and make sure they have drainage holes. Your indoor seedlings are going to need a lot of light...more light than a regular plant, to get them going.

So arrange lights over your seedlings. Plan to have these lights on for up to 15 hours a day. Put a fan in the room on low to keep the air circulating too. This is surprisingly important. If the air is static the plants will not prosper.

Seeds need to be warm to germinate. They will be comfortable in a temperature between 60-70F during the day and will generally tolerate 50-60F overnight. Covering them with plastic or fabric or newspaper can assist in keeping them warm until they sprout.

Make sure your indoor seedlings are kept moist but not soggy. Once proper leaves appear (the first two are just seed leaves) feed them with a weak fish fertilizer mixed with water.

As the seedlings mature and near time to enter the garden proper, they need to be 'hardened off'. This means moving them outdoors for progressively longer periods each day. Start them off in a protected part of the garden and bring them back in at night. As they get stronger, they will be prepared to withstand the actual conditions in the garden much more successfully.

If you start your seedlings indoors, it will get you 'gardening' much sooner in the year and excite the old spring fever!

Judy Williams (http://www.no-dig-vegetablegarden.com) splits her time between being a media executive and an earth mother goddess. No Dig Vegetable Gardens represents a clean, green way to grow your own food. The site covers all aspects of growing, cooking and preserving your harvest.

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